Figures & Tables
Tables
Variable Description Variable Type Purchase of maize flour Purchased packaged (fortified) maize flour 1= Household purchased maize flour in packaged and sealed form Dummy Price paid Average price paid for maize flour (KES/gram) Continuous Distance traveled Average distance traveled to purchase maize flour (km) Continuous Main shopper characteristics Age of main shopper Age of the main shopper in the household (years) Continuous Secondary school education 1=Main shopper has at least some secondary school education Dummy Female 1=Main shopper is female Dummy Notice signs 1=Main shopper notices signs that encourage healthy purchases when shopping Dummy Notice nutrition information 1=Main shopper notices nutrition information or nutrition labels on packaged foods Dummy Notice fortified status 1=Main shopper notices the fortification status of food products before purchase Dummy Fortified status: Most importanta 1=Main shopper reports that fortification is among the most important food attributes Dummy Fortified status: Least importanta 1=Main shopper reports that fortification is among the least important food attributes Dummy Household characteristics Female-headed household 1=Household head is female Dummy No. adults Number of adults in the household Continuous No. children Number of children in the household Continuous Poverty likelihoodb Likelihood (%) that a household is below US$3.20/day international poverty level Continuous More poor 1=Household is above the median poverty likelihood value Dummy Less poor 1=Household is below the median poverty likelihood value Dummy Farm household 1=Household is involved in farming Dummy Food environment characteristics Packaged (fortified) maize flour in food environment 1= Home food environment has at least one outlet selling packaged (fortified) maize flour Dummy No. outlets selling packaged (fortified) maize flour Number of outlets in the home food environment that offer packaged (fortified) maize flour Continuous Density of outlets selling packaged (fortified) maize flour in home food environment Number of outlets per km2 that offer packaged (fortified) maize flour in the home food environment Price of packaged (fortified) maize flour Median purchase price of packaged (fortified) maize flour in the enumeration area (KES/kg) Continuous Price premium for packaged (fortified) maize flour Gap between median price of packaged and unpackaged maize flour in the enumeration area (KES/kg) Continuous Geographic characteristics Nairobi urban 1= Household resides in urban Nairobi Dummy Nairobi peri-urban 1= Household resides in peri-urban Nairobi Dummy Kisumu urban 1= Household resides in urban Kisumu Dummy Kisumu peri-urban 1= Household resides in peri-urban Kisumu Dummy a Respondents were presented with a list of 18 food attributes and asked to select their 4 most important and 4 least important attributes.
b This measure of each household’s likelihood of poverty is based on scores given to 10 indicators, including household size, number of habitable rooms and wall material of the dwelling unit, ownership of a television or mobile phone, whether the household contains any member with a disability, and the nature of household members’ work, literacy, and education. The resulting score is converted into probabilities of falling below the US$3.20/day poverty line.31 These probabilities are then used to categorize households as having a low or high likelihood of poverty, based on whether they are below or above the median poverty likelihood score.
- TABLE 2.
Household Purchase of Packaged Maize Flour, Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022 (N=1,507)
Study-Region Poverty Status All Nairobi Urban Nairobi Peri-Urban Kisumu Urban Kisumu Peri-Urban More Poor Less Poor Household purchased maize flour (%) 80 81 80 70 66 83 77 Household purchased packaged (fortified) maize flour (%) 67 68 70 50 34 66 67 Household purchased packaged (fortified) maize flour, if any maize flour was purchased (%) 84 84 87 72 51 80 87 Number of times packaged (fortified) maize flour was purchased in a month, if any (mean) 4.3 4.2 4.3 5.3 4.7 5.0 3.7 No. of households 1,507 375 357 383 392 817 690 - TABLE 3.
Availability of Packaged Maize Flour in the Home Food Environment, Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022 (N=1,507)
Study-Region Poverty Status All Nairobi Urban Nairobi Peri-Urban Kisumu Urban Kisumu Peri-Urban More Poor Less Poor % of households whose home food environment contains any selling points for packaged (fortified) maize flour 100 100 100 100 92 100 100 Average number of outlets in the households’ home food environment that sell packaged (fortified) maize flour 42 54 29 17 12 42 41 Average number of outlets per km2 in home food environment that sell packaged (fortified) maize flour 82 107 58 33 10 84 81 - TABLE 4.
Prices Paid for Packaged and Unpackaged Maize Flour (mean KES/gram), Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022 (N=1,507)
Study-Region Poverty Status Type of Maize Flour All Nairobi Urban Nairobi Peri-Urban Kisumu Urban Kisumu Peri-Urban More Poor Less Poor Packaged (fortified) 71 71 68 79 83 69 72 Unpackaged (unfortified) 72 74 68 68 64 70 74 Note: To produce these values, the quantities purchased and expenditures made for maize flour over the previous month were first summed within each household to generate a within-household average, and the average was then calculated across households.
- TABLE 5.
Outlets Where Households Purchase Maize Flour, by Type of Maize Flour, Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022 (N=1,194)
% of Households Outlet Unpackaged (Unfortified)
(N=374)
Packaged (Fortified)
(N=820)
Duka 36 66 Large supermarket 4 21 Small supermarket 1 8 Posho mill 42 1 Wholesale 2 4 Kiosk 4 3 Market 11 1 Other 4 1 Note: Each value indicates the percent of households (among those that purchase a given type of maize flour) that procure the product from a given outlet. Because households typically frequent multiple types of outlets, these values sum to more than 100%.
- TABLE 6.
Mean Distances Traveled for Maize Flour Purchases (km), Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022
Study-Region Poverty Status Type of Maize Flour All Nairobi Urban Nairobi Peri-Urban Kisumu Urban Kisumu Peri-Urban More Poor Less Poor Packaged (fortified) 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.2 0.4 0.8 Unpackaged (unfortified) 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.3 Note: To produce these values, we first calculated the within-household average distance traveled to purchase each product across the different purchases made in the previous month and then calculated an average across households.
- TABLE 7.
Characteristics of Households, by Purchasing of Packaged Maize Flour, Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022
Did Household Purchase Packaged (Fortified) Maize Flour? All No Yes Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) P Valueb Main shopper characteristicsa Age (years) 35.83 (12.11) 37.36 (12.64) 35.06 (11.77) .02 Secondary school education 0.64 (0.48) 0.61 (0.49) 0.65 (0.48) .33 Female 0.68 (0.47) 0.63 (0.48) 0.71 (0.45) .03 Notice signs 0.56 (0.50) 0.58 (0.49) 0.55 (0.50) .45 Notice nutrition information 0.46 (0.50) 0.49 (0.50) 0.44 (0.50) .29 Notice fortification status 0.32 (0.47) 0.37 (0.48) 0.30 (0.46) .08 Fortified status: Most important 0.06 (0.24) 0.06 (0.23) 0.06 (0.24) .77 Fortified status: Least important 0.28 (0.45) 0.30 (0.46) 0.27 (0.45) .43 Household characteristics Female-headed household 0.29 (0.46) 0.30 (0.46) 0.29 (0.45) .68 No. adults 1.98 (0.96) 2.00 (1.06) 1.97 (0.90) .79 No. children 1.43 (1.43) 1.39 (1.45) 1.46 (1.42) .59 Poverty likelihood (%) 34.07 (26.25) 34.15 (26.30) 34.04 (26.24) .96 Farm household 0.16 (0.37) 0.19 (0.39) 0.14 (0.35) .12 Food environment characteristics Density of outlets selling packaged (fortified) maize flour in home food environment (number/km2) 82.25 (53.74) 74.83 (56.61) 85.97 (51.87) .006 Price of packaged (fortified) maize flour (KES/kg) 68.92 (5.41) 69.97 (7.38) 68.39 (3.97) <.001 Price premium for packaged (fortified) maize flour (KES/kg) 1.64 (5.92) 2.20 (7.54) 1.35 (4.89) .07 Geography Nairobi urban 0.55 (0.50) 0.53 (0.50) 0.57 (0.50) .34 Nairobi peri-urban 0.36 (0.48) 0.33 (0.47) 0.38 (0.49) .21 Kisumu urban 0.05 (0.22) 0.07 (0.26) 0.04 (0.19) <.001 Kisumu peri-urban 0.03 (0.18) 0.07 (0.25) 0.02 (0.13) <.001 No. of households 1,507 687 820 a In households with more than one shopper, the age, education, gender, indicators of awareness, and food values of the main shopper refer to the shopper who responded to the survey on behalf of the household.
↵b P values are for a t-test for the difference in mean values. Significant P values are in boldface (P<.01, P<.05, and P<.10).
- TABLE 8.
Correlates of the Purchase of Packaged Maize Flour (Probit Models), Urban and Peri-Urban Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya, 2022 (N=1,507)
All Nairobi Kisumu (1) Unconditional (2) Conditional (3) Unconditional (4) Conditional (5) Unconditional (6) Conditional Age of main shopper (years) −0.003 −0.001 −0.003 −0.001 −0.003 −0.003 P value .03 .18 .04 .25 .04 .01 Secondary school education 0.020 0.039 0.021 0.040 0.054 0.017 P value .64 .18 .65 .21 .23 .58 Female 0.130 0.020 0.140 0.018 −0.029 0.012 P value .02 .52 .01 .60 .54 .68 Notice signs −0.023 0.044 −0.025 0.044 −0.009 0.047 P value .61 .08 .62 .11 .80 .04 Notice nutrition information −0.015 −0.033 −0.013 −0.037 −0.002 −0.015 P value .71 .18 .77 .16 .97 .66 Notice fortification status −0.091 −0.021 −0.095 −0.021 −0.021 −0.023 P value .03 .34 .03 .39 .72 .42 Fortified status: Most important 0.043 −0.042 0.048 −0.044 −0.035 0.119 P value .61 .44 .62 .43 .59 .06 Fortified status: Least important −0.035 −0.050 −0.041 −0.054 0.008 0.012 P value .31 .06 .27 .05 .86 .70 Female-headed household −0.052 −0.022 −0.051 −0.021 −0.014 0.027 P value .33 .44 .37 .48 .82 .23 No. adults −0.012 −0.004 −0.016 −0.005 0.017 0.010 P value .66 .80 .60 .74 .44 .60 No. children −0.006 −0.007 −0.009 −0.010 0.015 0.011 P value .64 .53 .54 .46 .23 .16 Poverty likelihood (proportion) 0.029 0.006 0.023 0.019 0.074 −0.018 P value .76 .91 .83 .78 .40 .81 Farm household 0.003 −0.001 0.022 0.006 −0.128 −0.037 P value .94 .95 .61 .82 .001 .16 Density of outlets selling fortified maize flour (10s/km2) 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.008 −0.004 P value .59 .28 .68 .27 .56 .47 Price of fortified maize flour in EA (KES/kg) −0.004 0.001 −0.003 0.001 −0.001 0.010 P value .65 .85 .80 .92 .81 .01 Price premium for fortified maize flour (KES/kg) −0.003 −0.008 −0.001 −0.009 −0.009 −0.006 P value .64 .08 .91 .09 .05 .02 Purchased maize flour in duka 0.244 0.226 0.423 P value <.001 .002 <.001 Purchased maize flour in posho mill −0.150 −0.156 −0.121 P value .02 .03 .03 Purchased maize flour in market −0.051 −0.079 0.120 P value .49 .34 .12 Purchased maize flour in large supermarket 0.327 0.306 0.521 P value <.001 <.001 <.001 Purchased maize flour in small supermarket 0.285 0.258 0.609 P value <.001 <.001 <.001 Purchased maize flour in other type of outlet 0.147 0.129 0.303 P value .007 .04 <.001 Nairobi peri-urban 0.030 0.062 0.024 0.061 P value .60 .09 .71 .11 Kisumu peri-urban −0.239 0.047 −0.079 −0.015 P value .005 .24 .23 .65 Kisumu urban −0.087 0.036 P value .32 .38 No. of households 1,507 1,125 732 578 775 547 Wald χ2 138.2 772.3 49.5 1432.5 225.2 2019.1 P > χ2 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 Pseudo- 
0.05 0.40 0.03 0.38 0.08 0.55 Average marginal effects; standard errors clustered at enumeration area; significant P values are in boldface (P<.01, P<.05, and P<.10).
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